Iyini inqubo yamakhemikhali? inqubo yamakhemikhali: umnyombo futhi indima ngokwemvelo

ukuguqulwa Mutual compounds ebonwe imvelo, futhi kwenzeka njengoba zibangelwa yizenzo zabantu zingase ziqale ukubonakala engakapheli yezinqubo zamakhemikhali. I reactants kungaba kuzo njengoba ezimbili noma ngaphezulu izinto kwelinye noma ezifundeni ezahlukene wokuhlanganisa. Kuye lokhu umehluko wenziwe phakathi izinhlelo eyohlobo noma heterogeneous. izimo nezici ekhethekile ngendima yezinqubo zamakhemikhali ngokwemvelo kuzoxoxwa ngakho lokhu ephepheni.

Asho yokusabela chemical

Uma umphumela nokuxhumana izinto kokuqala babhekana ukushintsha izingxenye molecule amacala e-athomu nuclei ziyafana, uthi mayelana zamakhemikhali noma izinqubo. Imikhiqizo kwakhiwa ngenxa yokukhonza kwabo, le ndoda yasebenzisa e izimboni, ezolimo kanye nasemakhaya. Inani elikhulu kokusebenzisana phakathi izinto kwenzeka, njengoba ukuphila nezingaphili ngokwemvelo. izinqubo Chemical kukhona umehluko eziyisisekelo kusuka imihlola ngokomzimba nezakhiwo radioactivity. Kulezi izinto ezintsha kwakhiwa molecule kuyilapho izinqubo zemvelo abaziguquli ukubunjwa compounds, futhi ukusabela yenuzi kwenzeka ama-athomu izakhi ezintsha kumakhemikhali.

Imibandela yenqubo-chemistry

Kungenzeka ezahlukene futhi ngokuyinhloko ixhomeke ekutheni ubunjalo reagents ezidingekayo amandla wokufaka kusukela ngaphandle, kanye isimo wokuhlanganisa (ukudla okuqinile, izixazululo, amagesi) lapho inqubo kwenzeka. Mshini amakhemikhali ukuxhumana phakathi compounds ezimbili noma ngaphezulu kungenzeka kwenziwe ngaphansi isenzo catalysts (isib nitric acid), izinga lokushisa (ukukhiqizwa kwe-ammonia), amandla okukhanya (photosynthesis). Ngosizo enzyme ubunjalo eziphilayo wokusabela chemical icubungula ukuvutshelwa okwandile (utshwala, acidosis acid, udwi otshekele kwesokunxele) lisetshenziswe ukudla kanye nezimboni microbiological. Ukuze imikhiqizo organic zamagama umkhakha, omunye izimo enkulu khona indlela khulula-olukhulu iyinkimbinkimbi inqubo yamakhemikhali. Isibonelo kungaba ukulungiswa methane kampompi ukuxova umuthi wokugoma (dichloromethane, trichloromethane, carbon tetrachloride ekhiqizwa ngenxa uchungechunge ukusabela.

catalysis eyohlobo

Ziyakwazi izinhlobo olukhethekile phakathi izinto ezimbili noma ngaphezulu. Ingqikithi yalo yezinqubo zamakhemikhali ezenzeka isigaba eyohlobo (isb, igesi - igesi) ezihilela ukuphendula accelerators, kukhona ukuba ngiqhube ukusabela wawuqeda wonke lo mqulu Izingxube. Uma kulethe lisasesimweni efanayo aggregate, nokuthi reactants, it yakha izakhiwo kanye ezithathekayo Lesisemkhatsini sokuqala compounds.

catalysis eyohlobo - eyisisekelo chemical inqubo uqhutshwa, isibonelo, petroleum yokucwenga, ukukhiqizwa uphethiloli, naphtha, uwoyela negesi, nezinye zokubasa. Isetshenziselwa ubuchwepheshe obufana kokushintsha, isomerization, kwemifantu okhanda amanye amathuba.

catalysis heterogeneous

Endabeni catalysis heterogeneous, oxhumana naye we reactants kwenzeka kaningi surface esiqinile ekwandeni. It ayakha lokho okuthiwa amasayithi asebenzayo. It izifunda lapho nokuxhumana reactants kushesha kakhulu, isb izinga yokusabela okusezingeni eliphezulu. Ziyakwazi zinhlobo elicacisiwe, zidlala indima ebalulekile futhi uma kwenzeka ukuthi yezinqubo zamakhemikhali ezenzeka izinhlayiya zamangqamuzana aphilayo. Khona-ke ukhulume umzimba - umzimba ukusabela. Izibonelo catalysis heterogeneous iyona nokulungiselela kwezezimboni sulfate acid. I contactor ingxube gaseous-sulfur dioxide ne-oksijini uyabaselwa futhi idlule emashalofini latticed egcwele particulate luyibhuqu lwezinyawo vanadium oxide, sulfate vanadyl noma VOSO _4. I kwaphumela umkhiqizo - sulphur trioxide ke amuncwa kanzulu sulfuric acid. liquid Kwakheka, ngokuthi oleum. It kungenziwa buhlanjululwe ngamanzi ukuthola emakamu oyifunayo sulphate acid.

Izici ukusabela thermochemical

Ukuba kude kwendawo noma ukumuncwa amandla ngesimo ukushisa kubaluleke esisebenzayo. Engingakusho nje kokukhumbula fuel omlilo yokusabela: igesi yemvelo, amalahle, Peat. Zimelela izinqubo zemvelo namakhemikhali, izici ezibaluleke ukushisa amandla omlilo. ukusabela Thermal zisabalele emhlabeni eziphilayo, futhi ngokwemvelo ezingaphili. Ngokwesibonelo, ngesikhathi ukugaya cleavage amaprotheni, lipids kanye carbohydrate bedle izidakamizwa eziphila abakhuthele - enzyme.

Amandla ezikhishwe lilondolozwe ifomu izibopho amandla-ecebile ATP molecule. dissimilation ukusabela ephelezelwa ukukhululwa kwe amandla, ingxenye yalo kwashabalala njengoba ukushisa. Ngenxa ukugaya, amalutshwana wamaprotheni ngamunye inikeza 17 kJ 2 isitashi - 17, 2 kJ amafutha - 38,9 kJ. izinqubo Chemical ezenzeka lapho kukhululwa amandla abizwa ngokuthi exothermic, futhi nge ukumuncwa yayo - endothermic. Ngo umkhakha, zamagama organic kanye nobunye ubuchwepheshe ibalwa imiphumela ezishisayo ukusabela thermochemical. Lokhu kubalulekile, isibonelo, kahle ukubala inani wamandla asetshenziswa for amalahle kulesi sikhungo zamagama namakholomu, lapho ukusabela zenzeke ephelezelwa ukumuncwa ukushisa.

Kinetics neqhaza layo ku-mbono yokuziphendukela yezinqubo zamakhemikhali

Ijubane ukubala izinhlayiya ukusabela (amangqamuzana, ion) - inkinga enkulu ezibhekene nemboni. Isixazululo sakhe kunikeza izinzuzo kwezomnotho kanye inzuzo imijikelezo kwezobuchwepheshe umkhakha zamakhemikhali. Ukuze andise ijubane ukusabela ngaleyo ndlela njenge-ammonia zamagama izici juqu kukhona ukwehluka kontanga okungalungile negesi nitrogen ne-hydrogen ukuze 30 MPA, nokuvimbela waba ukwanda okukhulu kwezincwadi lokushisa (lokushisa elikhulu kuyinto 450- 550 ° C).

izinqubo Chemical esetshenziswa enkulu ekwakhekeni acid sulphated, ukushiswa okungukuthi pyrite, namachibi-sulfur dioxide, i-sulphur trioxide, oleum ukumuncwa wenziwa khona ngaphansi kwezimo ezihlukahlukene. Ukuze wenze lokhu, sebenzisa pyrite somlilo contactors. Bona acabangele lokuhlala reactants, lokushisa nokucindezelwa. Zonke lezi zici kuthiwa kwehlisa ukuxubana ijubane enkulu, okwandisa sulphate acid ukuthela 96-98%.

Ukusakazwa izinto, kokubili izinqubo zemvelo namakhemikhali ngokwemvelo

isisho Akwaziwa "Movement - ungukuphila 'singasebenza izakhi zamakhemikhali bengena izinhlobo ezahlukene ukuxhumana (ukuphendula kwakwakhe, esikhundleni, esibolile, exchange). Molecule athomu ezakhi chemical ukufika ngokunyakaza okuqhubekayo. Njengoba ososayensi, konke okungenhla izinhlobo zamakhemikhali kungenziwa ephelezelwa imihlola ngokomzimba: ukushisa ukukhululwa noma ukumuncwa izinhlayiyana eziningi zokukhanya ray ukukhanya, ukushintsha isimo uquqaba. Lezi zinqubo zenzeka igobolondo ngamunye Umhlaba: lithosphere, hydrosphere, nomkhathi, umhlaba. Okubaluleke kakhulu lawa ngemijikelezo izinto njengomoya-mpilo, isikhutha kanye nitrogen. Ngo okulandelayo sicabanga isihloko njengoba nitrogen kwegazi kwenzeka emkhathini, inhlabathi, nangemisebenzi yezinto eziphilayo.

Interconversion Nitrogen futhi compounds yayo

Kuyaziwa ukuthi i-nitrogen kuyingxenye ebalulekile amaprotheni, futhi ngaleyo ndlela uhlanganyela kumiswa iyiphi futhi zonke izinhlobo zezinto eziphilayo emhlabeni. Nitrogen zimuncwe yizimila nezilwane ngesimo ion: ammonium, nitrate kanye nitrite ion. Izitshalo okubangelwa ifomu photosynthesis hhayi glucose kuphela kodwa futhi ama-amino acid, glycerol, ama-fatty acid. Konke okungenhla chemical compounds kukhona imikhiqizo ukusabela okwenzeka Calvin umjikelezo. Evelele usosayensi Russian K. Timiryazev, wakhuluma ngendima cosmic izitshalo eziluhlaza, akhumbula, ngokukhethekile, futhi ikhono lazo synthesize amaprotheni.

Ezidla uhlaza kukhona peptides ukudla isitshalo, futhi carnivores - inyama izisulu. Ngesikhathi bedle inhlabathi amagciwane saprotrophic abolile izinsalela zezitshalo nezilwane kukhona izinqubo eziyinkimbinkimbi begazi futhi amakhemikhali. Ngenxa yalokho nitrogen zabo kusukela organic compounds wabe ifomu wezinto ezingaphili (ammonia kwakhiwa, nitrogen khulula, nitrate kanye nitrites). Ukubuyela emkhathini nomhlabathi, zonke lezi izinto zimuncwe yizimila futhi. Nitrogen ungena isikhumba ngokusebenzisa stomata amaqabunga, kanye nezixazululo ye nitric acid kanye oxide acid nosawoti awo amuncwa izinwele impande izimpande isitshalo. Umjikelezo we-nitrogen ukuguqulwa ivaliwe ukuphinda futhi. Ingqikithi yalo yezinqubo zamakhemikhali ezenzeka nge -nitrogen ngokwemvelo ibilokhu wafunda ngokuningiliziwe ekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-20 ngo usosayensi Russian DN Pryanishnikov.

powder yokusansimbi

Modern chemical izinqubo kanye nobuchwepheshe benza umnikelo obalulekile ukudalwa izinto nge izakhiwo ngokomzimba futhi amakhemikhali esiyingqayizivele. Loku kubaluleke kakhulukati, ikakhulukazi amadivayisi ukuhlonyiselwa zokuwuhluza uwoyela, amabhizinisi akhiqiza wezinto ezingaphili acid, udayi, upende, epulasitikini. Ngo womshini zabo zisetshenziswa edlulisela ukushisa, kanjalo contact apharathasi, zamagama ikholomu, amapayipi. imishini amaqabunga nabo abezindaba nolaka ngaphansi kwengcindezi okusezingeni eliphezulu. Ngaphezu kwalokho, izinqubo cishe yonke chemical ukukhiqizwa ziqhutshwa ngaphansi okushisa aphakeme. Ngezihloko ukuthola izinto nge high ukumelana ezishisayo kanye acid, anti-ukugqwala izakhiwo.

Powder yokusansimbi kuhlanganisa izinqubo ukwenziwa izimpushana zensimbi, futhi sintering ukwethulwa Alloys yesimanje esetshenziswa ukusabela nge izinto amakhemikhali nolaka.

Inhlanganisela futhi Okushiwo yabo

Phakathi ubuchwepheshe banamuhla ngokunenzuzo, izinqubo ezibaluleke kakhulu amakhemikhali kukhona production yokusabela materials oluyinhlanganisela. Lezi zihlanganisa Foam, cermets norpapalsty. Njengoba matrix esetshenziswa ukwenziwa izinsimbi kanye Alloys, izinto ezenziwe ngobumba, epulasitikini. Njengoba excipients esetshenziswa calcium silicate, ngobumba olumhlophe, Ferriday Sesithombe kanye ne-barium yombala. Zonke izinto ezingenhla ukunikeza izinto esiyinhlanganisela umthelela ukumelana, ukushisa kanye ukugqoka ukumelana.

Kuyini ubuchwepheshe chemical

Umkhakha, isayensi ekubhekaneni ekutadisheni izindlela ezisetshenzisiwe ukusabela eluhlaza izinto ukucutshungulwa: uwoyela, igesi yemvelo, amalahle, amaminerali, ngokuthi chemical ubuchwepheshe. Ngamanye amazwi, lapho isayensi izinqubo zamakhemikhali ezenzeka ngenxa yomsebenzi womuntu. Zonke kwesisekelo salo theory up izibalo, cybernetics, amakhemikhali nokusebenzelana kwawo ngokomzimba, ezomnotho ezimbonini. Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi inqubo yamakhemikhali ehilelekile ubuchwepheshe (kokuthola nitrate acid noqhekeko limestone, ukuhlanganiswa kwezici amapulasitiki phenol-formaldehyde) - ngaphansi kwezimo zamanje akunakwenzeka ngaphandle ezenzakalelayo zokulawula zilungele ukwenza umsebenzi womuntu, ngaphandle ukungcola kanye nokuqinisekisa ubuchwepheshe okuqhubekayo futhi okungezona sadlala ukukhiqizwa zamakhemikhali.

Kulesi sifundo, sahlola izibonelo izinqubo zamakhemikhali, kokubili imvelo (i-photosynthesis, dissimilation, le Umjikelezo we-nitrogen) kanye embonini.